Any civilization whose existence is several millennia old, is bound to become the target of a debate, questioning even its very existence.

The Xia Dynasty, together with the Shang and Zhou, are considered to be China's earliest dynasties. The Xia was the first to emerge, at the beginning of the 21st century BCE. For many centuries, the existence of the Xia Dynasty was based solely on ancient texts that mentioned it.

As a result, several scholars of the 20th century began to question whether the Xia Dynasty ever really existed. Not only was there a lack of any archaeological evidence, but these ancient texts seemed to have created the Xia as a direct opposition to the Shang.

In other words, according to these skeptics, the allegedly mythical Xia Dynasty was custom-made to present a certain picture that “had” to exist prior to the Shang.

Archaeological Evidence?

In recent decades, a series of archaeological excavations have brought to the surface, quite literally, a number of artifacts that ostensibly prove that the Xia Dynasty actually existed.

Nonetheless, one should always be cautious in reaching conclusions based on evidence that is rather scattered. Since the 1950s, there have been several excavations that have unearthed urban sites, bronze tools, as well as tombs, arguably from the Xia Dynasty. However, its connection with the Xia Dynasty, as described in the ancient sources, is not yet verified.

Still, the evidence suggests the existence of a transitory culture between the civilizations of the late neolithic period and the Shang Dynasty – one could refer to it as the Xia Dynasty.

Xia Dynasty Basics

Based on the textual evidence that should be approached cautiously, Xia was the name of a confederation of tribes. These tribes lived in areas around Songshan, Yishui, and Luoshui of the modern-day Ηenan Province.

According to the records, after Yu the Great, the legendary leader passed away, his son Qi took his father's place and became the ruler, marking the first occasion where the hereditary system was used, rather than succession by virtue.

As the ancient book Bamboo Annals describes, the Xia Dynasty counted seventeen rulers in a span of 471 years. The throne was passed from father to son, or to a brother.

Based on the ancient historiographers, the Xia governing system was such that, besides the central authority of the Xia, there were several rather independent political groups. Some aligned with the Xia, but others revolted against them.

The fluid situation did not allow the Xia Dynasty to enjoy a stable government. The Xia, much like the Shang and Zhou after them, had not yet realized the importance of centralized power the way the Qin later did.

As a result, the Xia Dynasty is characterized by upheaval and conflicts, both external and internal. In later years, the situation became significantly worse. Some unwise rulers – the most characteristic being Jie from the 17th century BCE – did their utmost to alienate the people.

Finally, as the Xia Dynasty was approaching its end, the Shang tribe in the east, and its leader, chief Tang, decided to take advantage of the opportunity and challenged Jie. In the revolt, Jie was defeated and the Xia Dynasty officially came to an end.